The History of Asiatic Jewellery: India and the Indus Valley

Greek Gold and the Indian Spice Routes

The first oceanic trading routes between the ancient Greeks and India began in around 130 BC, established by a Greek navigator named Eudoxos of Cyzicus, under Ptolemy VIII, who was king of the Hellenistic/Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. With the assistance of an Indian navigator, Cyzicus made the first recorded journey in c.118 BC. They sailed from the Arabian port of Aden (Eudaemon in Greek) to the west coast of India using the Indian Ocean's seasonal monsoon winds to carry them along.

Perhaps the first commodity that attracted the ancient Greeks was spice, and one of the first spices that was heavily traded was Piper nigrum, or black pepper (Sanskrit: pippali, Latin: piper) from Tamil Nadu in southeastern India. This was followed by other exotic commodities such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, rice, and gemstones.

The Romans expanded trade with the Tamil Chola, Pandyan and Chera dynasties, establishing trading settlements which would remain long after the fall of the Western Roman empire. Spices were not the only commodity that interested the Greeks and Romans - live peacocks were highly prized as garden decor in ancient Greece. In exchange, the Indians got what they wanted from the Greco-Roman world - gold, and lots of it.

Along with gold there were other Mediterranean commodities such as copper, silver, olive oil, and wine, but it was gold that the Indians were after. Rather than use the bartered gold for currency, as did the Greeks, the Indians were simply in search of new ways to decorate themselves. By the latter half of the first century AD Pliny the Elder said of this trade imbalance: "We must be mad bankrupting ourself for India" [5]. One notable manifestation of India's preoccupation with gold and self-decoration was in the Hindu tradition of the "sixteen adornments."

The Birth of India's Golden Age

Founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 332 BC, the Mauryan Empire was one of the largest empires to rule the Indian subcontinent, and a precursor for the modern nation of India. The golden age of the Guptas began in the Indo-Gangetic Plains in the 3rd century BC, with Chandragupta seizing conquered territories within the Indus basin that had been held by Alexander the Great. At its height in the 2nd century BC the Mauryan Empire extended to Kerala at the tip of India in the south, Afghanistan in the west, and Assam (Bangladesh) in the east.

War and conquest was a fact of life in the ancient world, and India's women were an integral part of the equation. During the time of Gupta, female warriors were common, but they had been celebrated in battle since the time of the Rig Veda in 1,000 BC. With the rise of the Mauryan empire, the city of Patna became the seat of power for the Indian sub-continent, and a symbol of the greatness of India. Patna was situated at the confluence of four rivers — the Ganges, Arennovoas, Sonabhadra and Hiranyawah — and the city became a major trading hub for the ancient world.

The Greek historian Megasthenes (350—290 BCE), who was also an ambassador to the court of Chandragupta, gives the first written account of Patna in his book Indika, which he refers to as Palibothra. Under Chandragupta grandson Ashokavardhan Maurya (alternately "Ashoka the Cruel" or "Ashoka the Great") transformed Patna from a city of wooden construction to a magnificent, 22-mile-long city of stone with over 64 gates.

Late in life, Chandragupta Maurya renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks, ushering in the age of Jainism in India. Like his grandfather Chandragupta before him, Ashoka also renounced bloodshed to follow the teachings of Buddha, after witnessing first-hand the mayhem he had unleashed during the Kalinga War of Orissa in 264 BC.

Ashoka spread his message of non-violence (the "Edicts of Ashoka") on the "Pillars of Ashoka," which were a series of columns dispersed throughout northern Indian. In H. G. Wells' book "The Outline of History" he wrote of Ashoka: In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves "their highnesses," and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day."

Punctuating this special time in India's history is the story of Rama who is one of the more popular folk heros and deities in the Hindu religion. The legend of Rama is told in one of India's greatest epics, the Ramayana. The tale of Rama's life, and his spiritual journey is one of perfect adherence to the concept of dharma, that of living a life of goodness and righteousness. But Rama is both a lover, and a warrior, one of the constant contradictions within the Hindu culture.

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The History of Asiatic Jewellery: India and the Indus Valley

Humans first began to migrate from Australia to the Indian sub-continent around 60,000 years ago. These early settlers were descendants of the Australoid aborigines, and became the known as the Dravidian, whose reach extended from India to Iran.

Jewelry making in the Indus Valley dates back to the Neolithic-age Mehrgarh culture (7000—5500 BC), and Late Harappan (aka "Cemetery H") age, which predates the iron-age development of metal-casting and metal working. The Indus Valley region, which encompasses Persia and the Indian sub-continent, was the home to the Indus-Sarasvati civilizations (Aryan,Harappa and Vedic peoples) which were the largest (both population and geography) of the major ancient civilizations from Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia and China. The Sarasvati was a river praised in the Rig-Veda (a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns), running the length of the Indus Valley, from Punjab to the Arabian Sea.

Early Indus Valley jewelry consisted of strands of simple beads that were carved from soft stone, or fashioned from shells. The Harappans were expert craftsmen, making beads fromagate, amethyst, carnelian, lapis lazuli and turquoise. Some stones were heated to produce a reddish color which was prized by the early Indus civilization [4].

Jewellery of the Harappan Culture

During the Late Harappan period craftsmen began to work with bronze, copper silver, andgold, fashioning simple necklaces, head-bands, bangles and other ornamentation from cast metalwork, glazed faience (a non-clay ceramic), terracotta, shells, and carved ivory. Copper was mined locally by the Harappans, in Baluchistan and Rajasthan [9]. Examples of this early jewelry can be seen on the cast-bronze statuette of the 'Dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro' (Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan), believed to have been made in 2,500 BCE (above, left).

The Harappans were also accomplished sailors and navigators, helping them to expand the boundaries of trade Bahrain and Sumer For navigation, the Harappans carved compasses from conch shell, which they used to measure the angle between stars.

Jewelry was also made in the form of anthropomorphic symbols such as animals, trees, and sexual organs, due primarily to their pagan, and matriarchal spiritual beliefs. Jewelry was worn predominantly by the female, and was not buried with the deceased, but passed on to their heirs. Another popular Harappan spiritual motif was the Shiva Pashupati, or Yogic "Lord of Beasts."

Jewels of the Indian Subcontinent

As India's abundance of mineral wealth became known throughout the world, the indigenous people became increasingly wealthy and their lifestyle grew in opulence. Beginning in the time of India's Maha Janapadas, or "Great Kingdoms" (700—300 BCE), the region's wealth and power steadily increased, reaching its zenith during the Mughal Empire which spanned from the 16th century to the mid-19th century, and who's empire extended from Indian sub-continent to Afghanistan.

Gemstone use in India was well documented in the 6th century BCE Sanskrit encyclopedia known as the Brihat-Samhita (Utpalaparimalä,), written by Daivajna Varahamihira (505-587). Varahamihira, who was an astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer from Ujjain, categorized twenty-two gems, or "ratnas," which included: Marakata (emerald), Mukta (pearls), Padmaragaor Mänikya (ruby), and Vajra (diamond), as well as Brahmamani (bicolored tourmaline), Gomeda(jacinth or zircon), Indranila (sapphire), Jyotirasa, Karketana (chrysoberyl), Pravals (coral), Pulaka(garnet), Pushparaga (topaz), Rajamani (royal gem), Rudhirakhya (carnelian), Sasikanta(moonstone), Saugandhika (sapphire variety), Sphatika (rock crystal), Sasyaka (copper sulphate), Vaidurya (Lápiz lazuli), and Vimalaka (pyrite).

The classification of gemstones were further divided into distinct categories by the disiplin ofJyotish, which is an ancient Indian system of astronomy and astrology. Gems were divided intomahäratna (major gems) and uparatna (minor gems), with the former group being tied to the nine planets or astrological signs: Diamond (Venus), Ruby (Sun), Emerald (Mercury), Topaz or Yellow Sapphire (Jupiter), Garnet (Rahu), Blue Sapphire (Saturn), Pearl (Moon), Red Coral (Mars), Cat's-Eye Chrysoberyl (Ketu) as nine stones. These nine stones were typically set in aNavaratna (nine gems) setting system, with ruby (the sun) at its center.

The History of Jewellery: Ethnic Tribal Jewelry

Body Modifications in Primitive Culture

Body modifications and other "improvements" on nature are as old as civilization itself, and were practiced in some form by nearly every primitive culture. Islam is one of the few cultures that forbids this type of beautification, as it is considered to be a defiling of God's creation. These modifications include body piercing, fetishist scarification, tattooing, ear, nose, lip and forehead reshaping (africa, pre-Columbian Mesoamerica), neck stretching (Burma), feat binding (China), and a host of other "beautification" methods.

Ritual scarring, or "fetishist scarification" and body modification was, and still is popular with various South and West African fetish-worshipping tribes such as the Diola ( Senegal, Gambia), Dahomey (Benin), Foulah Tong (Senegal), Kirdi (Camaroon), Malinke (Niger, Guinea), Sara Kaba (Central African Republic) and Soussou (South Africa).

In the Southeast Asia country of Burma (Myanmar), the Tibeto-Burman ethnic tribespeople known as the Kayan (aka Padaung) have a unique form of body modification. The Kayan "long neck" women stretch their necks by adding successive brass coils as they develop from childhood. There are several theories as to the origin and purpose of this type of modification, ranging from a simple desire to maintain their cultural identity, to exaggerating dimorphism, and even to protect women from becoming slaves by making them less attractive [4]. There are only around 7,000 surviving members of the Kayan tribe remaining in Myanmar, and the government is discouraging the practice in order to appear more modern.

Like the Kayan women of Burma, the Austro-Asiatic Bonda tribe (aka: Remo) wears multiple neck rings made of silver, but they are loose-fitting and not intended for stretching the neck. The Bonda plainsmen are one of the oldest and most primitive tribes in mainland India, living in the lowland mountains of the Malkangiri District, in the Indian state of Orissa.

The Amazonian Matis Indians wear ear ornaments made with 2-inch-in diameter conical-shaped snail shells that are attached to the end of a long wooden dowel that is pierced through the earlobe. These ornaments are believed to enhance a hunter's hearing ability [3].

Primitive Fetishism & Totemism

In the tribal world, a "fetish" is any object, be it natural or man-made, that is believed to have supernatural powers, or power over others. The term "fetishism" describes the attribution of inherent power of a given object, or "fetish." The word was derived from the French word "fétiche," which comes from the Portuguese word "feitiço," and the Latin word facticius, meaning "artificial," and facere, meaning "to make."

Although the contemporary use of the word "fetish" has become synonymous with eroticism and sexuality, the traditional/tribal use of the fetish was tied to every aspect of village life, from agricultural concerns, weather and social harmony or discord, to health, fertility and procreation. Fetishes are typically modeled after the object of concern, such as a person, animal, body part, etc.

A "totem" is similar to a fetish in that it is an inanimate object (carved figurine, animal part, etc.) that has shamanistic powers, and takes the form of an animal or other naturalistic figure that spiritually represents a group of related people, tribes or clans.

Tattooing & Ritual Scarification

Henna (Mehndi in Hindi) tattooing dates back to ancient Africa, Indian and Tamil, Persian,Mesopotamian, Bedouin, Maori and Moorish tribes. The dye for this type of tattoo is not totally permanent, and is made from the henna plant (Lawsonia inermis) which is native to tropical and subtropical regions of Africa and Southeast Asia.

In India, Persia and the Middle Esat, elaborate henna tattoos are worn on the hands and forearms, creating the illusion of decorative lace gloves. The cultural significance of henna tattoos varies from ethnicity to ethnicity, but the general symbolism is related to spiritual enlightenment, fertility, and good health. As an adornment for the Indian wedding ceremony, the henna tattoo, or mehndi is associated with transcendence and transformation.

The Maori, who are an indigenous aboriginal tribe from the island Aotearoa (New Zealand), migrated from Eastern Polynesia between 800 AD and 1300 AD. These ancient Polynesians were known for the ta moko, which is both an elaborate facial tattoo, and a form of scarification. The scarification was made by carving the skin with an uhi (chisel) which created depressed grooves in the skin, rather than a smooth surface created by puncturing. The Maori Chief in the illustration above (left) has a classic facial ta moko, as well as a traditional hair "topknot" that is decorated with feathers, a comb made of bone, and a greenstone earring and pendant.

Jewelry & Paganism

All known primitive tribes practiced some form of Paganism, which simply refers to any spiritual practices that are both polytheistic, and pre-Christian. These include folk religions that use animistic, pantheistic or transformational shamanic practices and rituals. Primitive pagan cultures were historically referred to as "heathens" or "savages," which were used as pejorative terms by the adherents of Western monotheistic religions. Pagan tribal culture and spirituality typically revolved around the concept that souls or spirits exist in humans, as well as in animals, plants or inanimate objects. When used by a Pagan shaman, healer or priest, a shamanic transformation fetish can alter the perceived reality of the subject, having a social and spiritual, as well as a chemical and metabolic effect on them.

Jewelry and fetishes that contain animal parts such as teeth, bone, skin or hide, claws, talons and hair played a particularly significant role in Pagan beliefs. The wearer of these types of ornamentations believed that he or she actually possessed the soul of the animal, imbuing the wearer with the animal's attributes and strengths: speed, courage, strength, cunning and stealthiness.

Northern Eskimo Tribes

The term "Eskimo" refers to three main aboriginal tribes of the Arctic region in North America that are: the Inuit (Inuvialuit) tribe who are indigenous to northern Canada (Nunavut), theYupik (Yup'ik) who are indigenous to western Alaska, and the Aleut who are indigenous to the Aleutian Islands. All of these tribe have practiced some form of shamanism based on animist principles, and this is reflected in their jewelry.

For the Inuit tribe, the Inukshuk is a recurring motif in jewelry. The Inukshuk, meaning "image of man's spirit," was a type of man-like totem sculptural signpost placed along the continent's northern shores as a marker to lead their way.

Inuit jewelry is fairly simple, consisting of amulets which were worn to ward off evil and bring good fortune; copper or leather headbands decorated with animal teeth, and "hairsticks" which were pieces of caribou bone around which they wound their hair. Jewelry was made from silver, antler, bone, ivory tusk, and soapstone. Bone or fossilized ivory might be scrimshawed with pictographs of animals, dancing, hunting, fishing, village life or shamanistic ceremonies.

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The History of Jewellery: Ethnic Tribal Jewelry

Beads,Nose Ornaments and Piercing in Tribal Jewelry

So-called "African trade beads" can be made from recycled or reclaimed items such as antique bottle glass, Czech glass beads, dice beads, porcelain "Prosser" beads, or decorative clay spindle-whorls; and they can be made from stone, semiprecious minerals or organic materials.

Semiprecious bead stones might include agate, chalcedony, carnelian, chrysocolla, so-called "greenstone" (chlorastrolite, chrysoprase, greenschist, omphacite, or serpentine), jade, jasper,lapis lazuli, onyx, obsidian, rock crystal, sardonyx, soapstone, terra cotta and turquoise.

Organic, or "zoogenous" materials are also popular bead materials. These materials might include bone, coconut shell, copal (an amber-like resin from the Copaifera tree), fire coral, hair,exotic hardwoods, so-called "Tibetan amber" (polymerized copal resin), wood resin, ivory, leather, nuts and seeds (job's tears, Coix lacryma-jobi), seed pearls, talons and claws, whole shells, colored yarn and mother-of-pearl. In tribal jewelry from Asian, Indian, and Persian cultures it is typical for most of these bead materials to be embellished with elaborate glyptic carvings that are representative of local motifs.

Beads are strung together with simple animal sinew, hair, hemp twine, or yarn; and can form a single strand of large disc-shaped, bicone, oval, sphere-shaped or drop beads; or they can be arranged in multiple strands of tiny "seed beads." Senegalese "love beads," or "Christmas Beads," use tiny seed beads that are strung into a multitude of strands that are used in traditional headdresses or as hair decoration.

Asian motif beadwork includes intricate Balinese beads in gold or silver, so-called "Hill Tribe" silver beads from the Karan tribe of the Golden Triangle; and tribal Cambodian, Chinese, Laotian, Burmese, Thai or Vietnamese metal beads from the Akha, Chin, Dong, Hmong (Miao), Lahu, Lisu or Shan tribes. Other countries that are known for their intricate metal beadwork are Bhutan Nagaland, Tibet, Nepal and India.

African, or Ethiopia amber (copal) beads come from the East African countries of Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and Yemin. Copal from the resin of the Frankincense incense tree Boswellia carteri has been produced in this region for thousands of years, and one of the largest ethnic groups to produce this amber is the nomadic Oromo from Ethiopia. As the copal beads are formed, the bead-makers can create patterns on the surface of the bead by working it with hot sticks.

Nose Ornaments & Piercing

Nose ornaments have been worn by most tribal cultures for thousands of years, and can be as simple as a single ring, barbell or pin; or as complex as the giant mesh or fan-style nose ornaments worn by the Pre-Columbian Moche peoples of Peru and Colombia.

The Matis Indians of Amazon Rainforest (aka "Jaguar People") use several thin spines from the ungurahui palm (Oenocarpus bataua), pierced through the septum at odd angles, to simulate the appearance of the jaguar's whiskers [3]. The Matsés Indians of the Río Gálvez (aka "Cat People") also simulate the whiskers of a jungle cat using foot-long spines made from caña brava reeds (Gynerium sagittatum), which can also be used to make spears and poison darts. Matsés women also use the reeds to pierce a perforation in their lower lip [6].

Traditional Hindu women from the Indian subcontinent use nose rings to signify marital status, and these can also be very complex, conneting to the hair with elaborate chains. Nostril, septum and bridge piercings can be made of only metal, or decorated with pearls and precious or semiprecious gemstones. Men from the Austro-Asiatic Asmat tribe of the south-coast of Irian Jaya, Indonesia (West Papua), wear enormous nasal ornamentations (up to 8 inches in width) made of flat, spiral-shaped boar tusk.

The History of Jewellery: Ethnic Tribal Jewelry

The use, and importance of jewelry in primitive tribal, or pagan ritualism, and jewelry's use as a tool for both beautification/decoration, and body modification/deformation dates back thousands of years. Although body modification was routinely practiced in the ancient Pre-Columbian and Indus Valley cultures, this type of beautification is still in practice today in Africa, South America, Southeast Asia, and even within sub-cultures in western societies.

In many primitive cultures, jewelry, body ornamentation and body modification has been used to exaggerate sexual dimorphism, accentuating the systematic differences between the sexes. Jewelry is also used for pagan rituals, to honor a particular deity, or as an offering in sacrificial ceremonies; though sometimes, jewelry is used for nothing more that simple beautification.

Primitive Motifs & Materials

There is a great deal of commonality in the motifs of primitive indigenous cultures, perhaps due to some ancient ancestral link, or due to a sameness in our primordial strivings and urges, or maybe it is just that there are only so many design possibilities. The main differences in cultural norms relate to the quantity of jewelry worn, the sex of the wearer, and the body location that the items are worn. The materials used, and the design motifs are all relatively similar.

Every conceivable type of ritual jewelry was used by tribal man, from the more conventional bangles, bracelets, chokers, earrings, necklaces, and finger rings, to more exotic items. such as anklets, cuffs, lip rings, toe rings, and various types of piercings. There are also jewelry items that are specific to a certain geographic region. These include armlets (India, Southeast Asia), lip-plates (West Africa), neck extending collars or rings (Burma), the borla and mang-tikka(Indian hair ornaments), nose ornaments (Africa, Southeast Asia, Native America, South American Amazon basin), and the ear spool (pre-Columbian Mesoamerica).

Since many indigenous tribal cultures are relatively poor, or have been subjected to plundering by Colonial powers, the selection of raw materials is somewhat humble. Simple metals are used such as brass, iron, copper, pewter, tin, silver-toned copper alloy, or oxidized white metal alloy; mixed with small amounts of silver and gold.

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The History of Jewellery: Ancient Roman Jewelry

Roman Jewelry Design Motifs

Although much of the jewelry produced in early Rome resembled Greek and Etruscan jewelry, new motifs were developed or derived from other cultures, and remained well-established throughout the ancient Roman period. Initially, Roman jewelry was somewhat more conservative and austere, when compared with other Mediterranean cultures, but relentless plundering soon led to a more ostentatious lifestyle.

Many Roman jewelry items were fashioned by Greek artisans, in the Greek style. An example of derivative Roman design was the Herakles knot, also known as the "knot of Hercules," or "marriage-knot," which was influenced by the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. This apotropaic (amulet and talisman) design was used as a protective amulet to ward off evil. The "Isis crown" was another motif borrowed from ancient Egypt, which was used frequently in earrings that were created during the second century BC.

Another popular jewelry motif invented by the Romans was the gold "hemisphere" which was used in necklaces, bracelets, and earrings (top of page, second from left). Also popular was the Roman motif depicting a coiling snake which symbolized immortality. The snake was typically fashioned into gold bracelets (above, left).

The "hoop earring" was another important Roman invention, appearing around 300 BC. Hoop earrings were commonly adorned with finials depicting animals, Maenads (aka Bassarids, Bacchae, or "wild, intoxicated women"), slaves, or the Greek god Eros.

Gemstones of Rome

Pearls from the Persian Gulf were a popular gemstone used in ancient Roman jewelry, which were combined with emerald and peridot from Egypt, and carnelian, jasper, lapis lazuli, and onyx from Persia. The gold, pearl and emerald earring in the photo (above, right) was discovered at a 2008 excavation of the Giv'ati car park in Jerusalem, and dates back to the Roman period, between the first century BCE and the beginning of the fourth century CE [12].

Amber was a favorite gemstone of the Romans who established the "Amber Route" to transport the precious gem from Gdansk, which had become the center of amber production, to Roman cities throughout the Empire. One of the most famous expeditions for the acquisition of amber occurred during Emperor Nero's reign, when a Roman equites (a member of the Roman equestrian order) reportedly brought back enough amber to build an entire stage for the gladiator fights.

Gemstones fashioned into cameo or intaglio cabochon portraits were also worn as rings and pendants (above, center).

Gemstones and pearls were particularly prized by the ancient Romans, as shown in the gold necklace (above, right) which was found in the ruins of Pompeii, and is generously set with emeralds and pearls. Toward the fall of the Roman Empire exotic gems from India and the Far East were plentiful, including blue sapphire and topaz from India or Sri Lanka.

Perhaps one of the first gemstone collectors was a 1st century BC Roman named Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, starting a collecting frenzy. The madness reached its zenith with Marcus Antonius (aka Mark Antony) offering a Roman Senator named Marcus Nonius a vast sum for a brilliant opal the size of a hazelnut, which Antonius wished to give to Cleopatra. When Nonius refused the offer he was told that he could part with the stone or leave Rome, and he chose the latter.

Roman Fashion & Censorship

There was a great deal of pressure to conform to the accepted style of the time, and a Roman Censor (Censorius) named Marcus Porcius Cato, or "Cato the Elder" (234-149 BC) drafted many rules and regulations against unchecked luxury. Cato imposed a heavy tax upon certain forms of dress and personal adornment, especially when worn by women. The word "censorship" was derived from Cato, who regarded the individual householder as the germ of the family, the family as the germ of the state. So strict was Cato that even a Roman senator would be reluctant to wear his gold signet ring in private.

Roman Jewelry Use

While Roman women would wear a wide variety of jewelry, a man would often wear only a single ring. Rings were commonly made of gold or electrum, and would sometimes feature a carved intaglio semi-precious stone that would be used in conjunction with hot wax to seal important documents (below, center). The gold "coin ring" (above, right) features a portrait of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121 AD to 180 AD).

After death, well-heeled Roman women were laid to rest in a painted casket or sarcophagus that was decorated with encaustic (hot wax) paintings called "Fayum Mummy Portraits" (photos above). These portraits would show the deceased at a younger age, adorned with their finest clothing and jewelry.

The History of Jewellery: Ancient Roman Jewelry

The ancient Romans began as an agricultural community living in the central Italian region of Tuscany (near present-day Rome), during the same period as the Etruscans, who were also inhabitants of western Tuscany until around 500 BC. Legend has it that the "Roman Kingdom" was founded in 753 BC by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who were descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas of Greco-Roman mythology.

The Roman Kingdom lasted from 753 BC to 509 BC, when the last Roman King from the Tarquin monarchy, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Unknown—496 BC), was overthrown by Lucius Junius Brutus who became one of the first consuls of the "Roman Republic." The Republic began to disintegrate with the appointment of Gaius Julius Caesar (100 BC—44 BC) as dictator for life, and formally ended after the war between Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius) and Octavian (aka Gaius Octavius Thurinus, or Caesar Augustus) at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. After the defeat, both Mark Antony and his lover Cleopatra VII—queen of Ptolemaic Egypt—committed suicide. The Roman Empire was established in 27 BC, and lasted only 500 years before collapsing in 476 AD.

Early Roman Jewelry

The Romans used a diverse selection of materials in their jewelry due to the accessibility of a wide variety of natural resources found across the European and Mediterranean continents which were under their dominion. They also had an extensive network of trade, which gave them access to exotic materials and precious gemstones that traveled along the ancient Silk Road from Persia, the Indus Valley, India and the Far East.

Many of the jewelry accessories seen throughout ancient Rome had functional, as well as decorative value. One of the most common jewelry item of early Rome was the brooch, which was used to secure clothing items. Another utilitarian jewelry design that was common throughout Roman history was the fibula, which was an ornately decorated clothing accessory resembling a large safety pin that was used as a clothing fastener. The fibula was often embellished with a glyptic cameo or intaglio of a female bust, or a winged Victory carving.

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The History of Jewelry: Jewellery of Mesopotamia

Assyria and the Gold of Nimrud

Perhaps one the greatest surviving treasure-troves of ancient jewelry and artifacts is the so-called "Gold of Nimrud," or Nimroud, which was found in the tombs and throne-room of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud. The Nimrud complex was situated to the south of the ancient Assyria capital of Nineveh (modern-day Mosul, Iraq), along the Tigris river. Although the ruins at Nimrud was discovered in 1848 by a British archeologist named by Sir Austen Henry Layard, the treasures that were hidden beneath the ruins lay undisturbed until 1988, when an Iraqi archaeologist named Muzahim Mahmud noticed that floor tiles within the ruins had been relaid at some point in the distant past.

In terms of their sheer volume and wealth, the treasure hoard at Nimrud has been compared to that of Egytian king Tutankhamen. Astonishingly, these treasures were also overlooked by the ancient Medes and Scythians, who had sacked the Nimrud palace in 612 BC.

In one tomb alone, there were over 450 items of gold and silver jewelry weighing around 22.5 kilograms! These included a single gold crown and diadem, 14 amulets, 79 earrings, 90 necklaces, 30 rings, and 15 gold or rock-crystal vessels. The Nimrud treasures were on display in the Assyrian galleries of the Iraqi Museum in Baghdad until 2003, when the museum was looted during the Iraq invasion. Some of the treasures were spirited off to wealthy collectors in Europe, but many of the items were hidden for safe keeping, and are now on display as part of the touring "Gold of Nimrud" exhibit [14, 15].

Many historians believe that the great Akkadian emperor Sargon of Akkad was the inspiration for the mythical figure Nimrod, who was a Mesopotamian monarch mentioned in the Book of Genesis. Nimrod, who's name is derived from the Hebrew word marad, meaning "rebel," was credited for constructing the "Tower of Babel" [16], which was an ancient ziggurat, or man-made "mountaintop" with a temple at its peak.

Babylonia

The city of Babylon was transformed into one of the "seven wonders of the ancient world" under the rule of King Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 630—562 BC) from the Chaldean Dynasty. The city became famous for the "Hanging Gardens of Babylon," shown in the speculative 16th century engraving by Dutch artist Martin Heemskerck (above, right). The city made for a tempting target, and in 539 BC, Babylon was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great, who breached the city's fortified walls and its infamous Ishtar Gate. Under the Persian king Darius the Great, Babylon became the capital city of the 9th Satrapy of Persia.

The Mitanni

The Mitanni and Hurri were two of several minor kingdoms that were founded by the Indo-Iranians in Mesopotamia and Syria. These Indo-Iranian empires were centered in northern Mesopotamia, and flourished from about 1500 BC to 1360 BC. The Indo-Iranians were probably members of Aryan tribes that later settled in the Indus Valley, but they broke off and migrated to Mesopotamia where they settled among the Hurrian peoples becoming the ruling noble class, called the maryannu.

The Phoenicians

The Phœnician civilization was a maritime trading culture whose influence spread across the eastern Mediterranean between 1550 BC and 300 BC. The Phoenicians were based in Canaan, in the city-states of Tyre (modern-day Lebanon and Israel), and Sidon (modern-day Syria).

The name "Phœnicia" was derived from the Latin word punicus, and the Greek word phoînix, for the purple dyes they manufactured. They were particularly well known for their highly-prized Tyrian purple dye (aka: royal purple, imperial purple), and indigo dye (aka: royal blue or hyacinth purple), which were made from the glandular secretions of a predatory sea snail (gastropod) known as Haustellum brandaris (Murex brandaris).

Phoenician traders would deal in exotic gems and materials that were imported from Asia Minor and the Orient, via the Silk Road. The Phoenician culture was known for the art of granulation which they learned from the Etruscans. The Phoenicians were also known for their interesting glass beadwork motifs, sometimes taking the form of a simple mosaic, and sometimes taking the form of whimsical bearded seafarers. In fact, the Phoenicians may have been the first culture to develop the technique of glass core-forming. It was in this region that the technique of glass-blowing may have been invented during the 1st century BC.

courtesy:google

The History of Jewelry: Jewellery of Mesopotamia

Considered to be one of the cradles of civilization, the Mesopotamian, or "Sumerian" culture flourished from the pre-pottery Neolithic (Hassuan) period of around 8,000 BCE, through the Late Bronze Age of around 1,200 BCE. Mesopotamian civilization relied on the life-giving rainfall of the region's "Fertile Crescent," and by the Ubaid period, around 5,000 BCE, village settlements began to spring up near the mouth of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, in present-day southern Iraq.

The first great city of the Sumerian culture was Eridu (present-day Tell Abu Shahrain, Iraq), which may have been founded as early as 5,400 BCE. Until recently, it was believed that the Sumerians developed the first written language [6], but this is now being attributed to the ancient Egyptians. After a long succession of ruling dynasties beginning with the First Dynasty of Kish, and ending with the Third Dynasty of Uruk, the first great empire arose in the land of Sumer. The Akkadian Empire was founded by Sargon of Akkad (aka: Sargon I, Sargon the Great) who ruled from 2270 to 2215 BCE.

Towards the end of the Akkadian Empire, king Ur-Nammu (2112—2095 BCE) ushered in the 3rd dynasty of Ur (aka: Ur III, or the "Sumerian Renaissance"), and a complex network of trade developed around the city of Ur. After the fall of Ur III, greater Mesopotamia was ruled by the Amorites (1953-1730 BC), then by the Babylonian Empire (1728—1686 BC) which ruled the lower Mesopotamian marshlands between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (Babylon), and the Assyrians who ruled upper Mesopotamia from the city of Assur along the Upper Tigris river near Anatolia. In around 1180 BC, the Assyrians were conquered by the Hittites, who had ruled the Central Anatolian plateau since the 18th century BC, but to the south, Babylonia continued to flourish.

Mesopotamian Jewelry

Mesopotamian jewelry was constructed from bronze, gold, silver, and the natural alloy known as electrum, which was imported from Lydia (Anatolia). Exotic gemstones such as agate, chalcedony, carnelian, jasper, onyx, lapis lazuli, and sardonyx were not locally produced [3], and had to be imported from such far-away lands as Anatolia, Egypt, and Persia (Iran and Afghanistan). Jewelry production extended from the cities of Akkad and Assur in Assyria, to the Babylonian cities of Nineveh, Sumer, and Ur.

Raw materials such as ivory, lapis lazuli and exotic hardwoods, as well as carved carnelian beads were also purchased from Harappan merchants who sailed over 1,500 miles from the Indus Valley [4].

Jewelry in Mesopotamia was worn liberally by both women and men, and popular items included multi-strand necklaces of carnelian and lapis (photos below), gold earrings, hair ribbons made from thin gold leaf, ankle bracelets, silver hair rings, gold medallion pendants with elaborate filigree, signet rings, cylinder seals, and amulets.

Popular jewelry design motifs in Mesopotamian included leaves, twigs and bunches of grapes, or cone and spiral shaped objects and pendants. Jewelry craftsmen employed a wide variety of metalworking techniques such as cloisonné enameling, engraving, granulation (later history), filigree and repoussé. Jewelry was made for human use, as well as for adorning statues and idols.

The Babylonian cylinder seal was a type of signet stone that was one to three inches long, and carved with an elaborate intaglio design that depicted both mythical scenes, and a unique personal signature [8]. Text was in cuneiform which was the written language of the Sumerian, Akkadian and Elamite cultures. These cylinder seals were typically made from chalcedony, jasper, serpentine or soapstone. These cylinders were used to mark/seal shipments that were destined for some distant land along the ancient Silk Road.

The use of signets or personal seal-stones may have also been responsible for creating the art of gem-carving known as "glyptic art." Glyptic carvings were used on ring-stones which were worn by men, women and children. The ancient lapidary would use emery fragments or flint to carve softer stones, and rotary tools driven by a bow were used on harder materials.

Jewelry was buried along with its male or female owner, and in the Royal tombs at Ur an extensive amount of jewelry was uncovered in the graves of both noblemen and noblewomen.

courtesy:google

HISTORY OF JEWELRY and ORIGIN: Jewellery of China 2

Chinese Jewellery Motifs and Materials

The dragon and phoenix were popular motifs in early Chinese jewelry, and remain so today. The dragon represents the primal forces of nature, and the universe, and are associated with wisdom and longevity. The "five-clawed" dragon was a symbol of Chinese emperors, while the phoenix, or fenghuang was the symbol of the Chinese empress.

The earring was one of the more common items of Chinese jewelry, which could be worn by either the man and the woman. Earrings could be quite complicated and large. Early Chinese jewelry was fabricated using silver as a dominant metal, along with modest amounts of gold and bronze.

Without a doubt, one of the most prominent, and prized materials used in Chinese jewelry was jade, known as "Chinese Imperial Jade." Jade was ascribed with human-like attributes such as beauty and toughness. Jade was used as a talisman to protect the wearer and as a status symbol indicating the dignity, grace and morality of the owner.

Most of the jade used in China prior to the 17th and 18th centuries was nephrite, which was also known as "Ming Jade." There is an ancient Chinese proverb that says: "gold is estimable, but jade is priceless." Early jade rings show evidence of being worked with an early type of compound milling machine. Saltwater pearls were another indigenous gem that was popular throughout China.

Today in China, pearls (freshwater and saltwater), jade (nephrite and jadeite), and cloisonné enameling remain the most popular gemstone materials in China. The Chinese don't forget the past, and these gems are an integral part of their culture, heritige, and spirituality.

China's Ancient Silk Route

The ancient "Silk Road," or "Silk Route," was not a single passage-way but an extensive interconnected network of 5,000-mile-long trade routes that traversed the Asian continent connecting China and Southeast Asia with the Indus Valley and Persia, as well as the ancient Mediterranean cultures of Canaan, Egypt, Mycenae and Rome.

Although the name implies that silk was traded along these routes, this was certainly not the only commodity to be imported from east to west. During the 3rd millennium BC, semiprecious gems such as lapis lazuli, and goods such as Egyptian cotton made their way east along the Silk Road, while jade, ivory, beeswax, camphor, musk and silk from China, Borneo and India made their way westward.

Under the Tang dynasty (AD 618-907), and its powerful general Su Dingfang, China controlled the entire Silk Road as far west as Aria (present-day Herat, Western Afghanistan), enforcing its rule with the help of the Göktürks who now carried Chinese titles, and fought side-by-side with the Chinese to maintain control.

During China's Eastern Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) a sea route was added to the Silk Road land routes. The sea route began at the mouth of the Red River near modern-day Hanoi, traveling through the Malacca Straits of Southeast Asia, to Sri Lanka and India, then on to the Persia, Axum (modern-day Ethiopia) and Rome.

Blue was, an still is an "Imperial" color in China, used to symbolize royalty and/or rank, and blue enameling was used to embellish royal ornamentation. Blue kingfisher feathers were sometimes affixed to jewelry headpieces as decorative accents.

In China, jewelry was worn by both sexes to show both nobility and wealth. Women wore an assortment of jewelry which could include a headdress or a simple head-band that was similar to the women of the Indus Valley. Jewelry, religious amulets and other decorative items were often placed in the graves of the deceased upon burial. Rulers and high officials were buried with jade artifacts to protect in the afterlife, and some royalty were even buried in a full suite made of green jadeite.

Courtesy: google

HISTORY OF JEWELRY & ORIGIN: Jewellery of China 1

The practice of jewelry making in China began over 5,000 years ago, during the Yangtze Delta's Middle Neolithic Yang-Shao and Lungshanoid cultures. As Chinese jewelry design developed, elaborate design motifs were adopted which had specific religious significance, and were traditionally used in Buddhist ceremonies.

Early Chinese history begins with the mythical "Three Sovereigns" (Three August Ones) who were Fu Xi (Fu Hsi) the "Heavenly Sovereign," Nuwa the "Earthly Sovereign," and Shennong the "Human Sovereign." The Three Sovereigns were mythological rulers of China, and god-kings, during the period from c. 2852 BCE to 2205 BCE, preceding emperor Yu (aka Sì Wénmìng or "Yu the Great") of the Xia Dynasty. Nuwa was a feminine creator goddess who was credited with creating mankind, and repairing the wall of heaven. Nüwa was typically depicted with a serpent's body.

According to Chinese mythology emperor Huang-di (known as the "Yellow Emperor") is said to be the ancestor of all Han Chinese, becoming a main deity of Taoism during the Han Dynasty. Huang-di reigned from 2497 BCE to 2398 BCE, and is said to have lived to 100 years of age, fathering over 25 children. Legend has it that his wife, Luo Zu, taught the Chinese how to weave the silk from the silkworm. Upon Huang-di's death it is said that a Dragon came down from Heaven, carrying him away. Alternativly, Huang-di himself turned into half-man half dragon and flew away.

Courtesy: google

HISTORY OF JEWELRY and ORIGIN Egyptian Jewelry II

Jewelry coloration was very important to the ancient Egyptians, and each color had a different symbolic meaning. Jewelry that featured the color green was meant to symbolize fertility and the success of new crops, while according to the Egyptian "Book of the Dead" a deceased person would wear a red-colored necklace which was meant to satisfy the God Isis' need for blood.

A jewelry item's motif was as important as its color, and no symbol was as important to the ancient Egyptians as the scarab, or dung beetle. Scarab amulets were symbolic of rebirth due to the dung beetles proclivity for rolling a piece of dung into a spherical ball, then using it as a brooding chamber from which the newborn beetle will emerge

Egyptian jewelry items included such commonly found ornamentation as bracelets, brooches, clasps, coronets, girdles, and earrings, but also included items that were unique to ancient Egypt. The pectoral, which is an ornamental item that has been found on many mummies, is an elaborate breast decoration that was suspended by chain or ribbon, and decorated to represent various dieties. There was also a unique headdress that formed a type of outer wig, flowing like waves of hair in long, flexible strands of gold beads. This was held in place by a gold diadem, which was designed to secure the wig during ceremonies. The diadem was also worn by the mummy, to protect the king's forehead in the hereafter. Even mundane household objects such as vases, plates and furniture were made of hammered gold, festooned with jewels.

Although many treasures were lost to tomb-robbers and piracy, one insignificant king's treasure remained intact and unmolested for thousands of years. That king was the now famous Pharaoh Tutankhamun, son of either Amenhotep III or Akhenaten. His short reign as Pharaoh began at age 9. Although he ruled for only 9 years (1336—1327 BC), he was able to amass a modest legacy of wealth and treasure that lives on today. Given the size and scope of Tutankhamun's wealth it is hard to imagine the vast treasure accumulated by long-reining kings such as Seti I or Ramesses II.

Courtesy: Google

HISTORY OF JEWELRY AND ORIGIN: Egyptian Jewelry

The ancient Egyptians placed great importance on the religious significance of certain sacred objects, which was heavily reflected in their jewelry motifs. Gem carvings known as "glyptic art" typically took the form of scarab beetles and other anthropomorphic religious symbols. The Egyptian lapidary would use emery fragments or flint to carve softer stones, while bow-driven rotary tools were used on harder gems.

Monument building, along with opulent collections of furniture, art, and jewelry helped to symbolize the glory, power, and religious dominance of the Pharaohs, both within the community, and throughout the broader region. This projection of wealth was not only important in one's earthly life, but became especially important in their after-life.

In ancient Egypt both men and women wore jewelry; not only as a symbol of wealth and status, but also for aesthetic adornment, and as protection from evil. Although the deceased was always buried with their earthy possessions, tomb-robbers have plundered much of Egypt's buried treasures long ago. Amazingly, much of the stolen treasure would be recycled by successive Kings for their own use in the afterlife.

Gold was the metal of choice for the Ancient Egyptians, and it was used extensively throughout the several thousand year history of pharaonic Egypt [2]. Bronze was also used extensively, and would sometimes be covered in gold-leaf. The Egyptians also used an alloy of gold, silver and a trace amount of copper called "electrum," which occurred naturally in Lydia (Western Anatolia). Electrum was mentioned in an expedition sent by the Fifth dynasty Pharaoh, Sahure.

Although the Egyptians had access to many precious gemstones, they preferred to emulate their colors using polychrome glass, because natural gemstones were much harder to work with. The use of cold-worked glass in jewelry may have been an invention of the Middle Kingdom, around 2000 BC. Solidified glass was also formed into beads, amulets and shawabtis, which were small figurines that were buried with the deceased. Clay objects known as "faience ware" were coated with vitreous glass glaze made of silica-sand, clay, and soapstone (steatite), and glass was used as an enamel inlay in metal jewelry. Egyptian enameling was the precursor to cloisonné, and the rich opaque enamel colors included cobalt or turquoise blue, green, purple, and white.

There were also several softer gems that were perennial favorites with the ancient Egyptians. Carnelian, jasper, lapis lazuli, malachite, rock crystal (quartz) and turquoise were all used extensively throughout ancient Egypt. In many ancient cultures royalty was represented by the color blue, and this was especially true in ancient Egypt, making lapis one of the most prized of all gemstones.

Most of the raw materials that were used to make jewelry were found in, or near Egypt, but certain prized materials such as lapis lazuli were imported from as far away as Afghanistan. One locally-obtained gemstone which was said to be Queen Cleopatra's favorite was emerald, which was mined near the Red Sea, at the Wadi Sikait Emerald Mines in Mons Smaragdus, Egypt.

Courtesy: Google

HISTORY OF JEWELRY & ORIGINFIRST EVIDENCE

The first evidence of jewelry making in Ancient Egypt dates back to the 4th millennia BC, to the Predynastic Period of along the Nile River Delta in 3100 BC, and the earlier Badarian culture (named after the El-Badari region near Asyut) which inhabited Upper Egypt between c.4500 BC and c.3200 BC. From 2950 BC to the end of Pharaonic Egypt at the close of the Greco-Roman Period in 395 AD, there were a total of thirty-one dynasties, spanning an incredible 3,345 years!

The first pharaohs of Egypt were kings Serket I and Narmer, at the beginning of the "Early Dynastic Period" (1st-3rd Dynasties, from 2850—2575 BC). The remaining twenty eight dynasties were divided into eight sub-groups which ended with the demise of the Greco-Roman Period in 395 AD. It was during this final chapter that Egypt was ruled by the Macedonians, Ptolemies, and finally the Romans

Courtesy: Google

HISTORY OF JEWELRY & ORIGIN:

The word Jewelry is derived from the Latin word jocale, meaning "plaything," and the word jewel, which was anglicised in the 13th century from the Old French wordjouel. The word "jewelry" (spelled Jewellery in European English) is used to describe any piece of precious material (gemstones, noble metals, etc.) used to adorn one's self.

Jewelry in its most basic form has been used since the dawn of man's use of tools and clothing. Until recently, researchers had believed that the ability to use symbolism did not develop until humans had migrated to Europe 35,000 to 40,000 years ago. Recently discovered mollusk or nassarius kraussianus shells that had been perforated to be made into beads are now thought to be some of the oldest known man-made Jewelry. This mollusk jewelry was discovered in a cave in Blombos, South Africa, and dates back to the Middle Stone Age 100,000 years ago. Other readily available natural materials used to make the first jewelry include animal teeth, bone, various types of shells, carved stone and wood. Most likely, jewelry started out as a functional item used to pin articles of clothing together and was later adapted to a purely aesthetic adornment.

Used as a symbol of wealth and/or status as well as to protect against harm, ward of evil, and heal ailments, jewelry was used to adorn nearly every part of the body and has been made out of almost every material known to mankind.

Prolific jewelry making began with the ancestors of Homo Sapiens, the Cro-Magnons over 40,000 years ago when they began to migrate from the Middle East to Europe. Cro-Magnons eventually replaced the Neanderthals as the dominant species. Jewelry from that period includes crudely fashioned necklaces and bracelets made of bone, teeth, mother-of-pearl, shells and stone strung together with a piece of twine or animal sinew. The earliest signs of metallurgy, using copper to make jewelry, was seen around 7,000 years ago.

Crude Fashion Jewelry by early man consist of teeth, bone, shells etc.,

Courtesy: Google

About Carat and Karat

The karat system is used to reveal the amount of pure gold found in an item.
· 24 karat (24K) gold is pure gold.
· 22 Karat (22K) gold contains 22 parts gold and 2 parts another metal or metals, making it 91.67% gold. It is standard designation in India, Gulf, and other Asian countries
· 18 karat (18K) gold contains 18 parts gold and 6 parts another metal or metals, making it 75% gold. Mostly used in precious stone jewellery.
· 14 karat (14K) gold contains 14 parts gold and 10 parts another metal or metals, making it 58.3% gold.
· 10 karat (10K) gold contains 10 parts gold and 14 parts another metal or metals, making it 41.7% gold. 10k gold is the minimum karat designation that can still be called gold in the US.
Where as (CARAT)
The carat is a unit of mass equal to 200 mg (0.007055 oz), and it is used for measuring gemstones and pearls

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